CBT focuses on the role of cognition in the behavioral pattern of individuals. SCT describes the influence of individual experiences, the actions of others, and environmental factors on individual behaviors. Moreover, there are three main variables in SCT: behavioral factors, environmental factors extrinsic factors , and personal factors intrinsic factors.
These three variables interrelate with each other, causing learning to occur. Moreover, behavioral learning theory is based on the concept of stimulus and response, while cognitive learning theory is based on mental processes. Behavioral learning theory focuses on observable behaviors, while cognitive learning focuses on mental activities and processes.
Skinner are the main contributors to behaviorist learning theory while Jean Paget is the main contributor to cognitive learning theory. In brief, behavioral learning theory is a learning theory that focuses on observable behaviors and discounts any independent mental activity. The main difference between behavioral and cognitive learning theory is that the former focuses on observable behaviors while the latter focuses on mental activities and processes.
Drew, Chris. Just as a doctor cannot prescribe an effective remedy without a proper diagnosis, the instructional designer cannot properly recommend an effective prescriptive solution without an accurate analysis of the instructional problem.
Through this understanding, a proper prescriptive solution can be matched with a given diagnosed problem. The critical link, therefore, is not between the design of instruction and an autonomous body of knowledge about instructional phenomena, but between instructional design issues and the theories of human learning.
Why this emphasis on learning theory and research? First, learning theories are a source of verified instructional strategies, tactics, and techniques. Knowledge of a variety of such strategies is critical when attempting to select an effective prescription for overcoming a given instructional problem. Second, learning theories provide the foundation for intelligent and reasoned strategy selection.
Designers must have an adequate repertoire of strategies available, and possess the knowledge of when and why to employ each. Third, integration of the selected strategy within the instructional context is of critical importance. Finally, the ultimate role of a theory is to allow for reliable prediction Richey, Effective solutions to practical instructional problems are often constrained by limited time and resources.
It is paramount that those strategies selected and implemented have the highest chance for success. The task of translating learning theory into practical applications would be greatly simplified if the learning process were relatively simple and straightforward.
Unfortunately, this is not the case. Learning is a complex process that has generated numerous interpretations and theories of how it is effectively accomplished. Of these many theories, which should receive the attention of the instructional designer? Is it better to choose one theory when designing instruction or to draw ideas from different theories? This article presents three distinct perspectives of the learning process behavioral, cognitive, and constructivist and although each has many unique features, it is our belief that each still describes the same phenomena learning.
In selecting the theory whose associated instructional strategies offers the optimal means for achieving desired outcomes, the degree of cognitive processing required of the learner by the specific task appears to be a critical factor.
If knowledge of the various learning theories is so important for instructional designers, to what degree are they emphasized and promoted? It appears that the real benefits of theoretical knowledge are, at present, not being realized.
The main intent is to provide designers with some familiarity with three relevant positions on learning behavioral, cognitive, and constructivist which should provide a more structured foundation for planning and conducting instructional design activities.
The idea is that if we understand some of the deep principles of the theories of learning, we can extrapolate to the particulars as needed. The concise information presented here can serve as an initial base of knowledge for making important decisions regarding instructional objectives and strategies. Learning has been defined in numerous ways by many different theorists, researchers and educational practitioners. Although universal agreement on any single definition is nonexistent, many definitions employ common elements.
Undoubtedly, some learning theorists will disagree on the definition of learning presented here. However, it is not the definition itself that separates a given theory from the rest.
The major differences among theories lie more in interpretation than they do in definition. These differences revolve around a number of key issues that ultimately delineate the instructional prescriptions that flow from each theoretical perspective. Schunk lists five definitive questions that serve to distinguish each learning theory from the others:. Expanding on this original list, we have included two additional questions important to the instructional designer:.
In this article, each of these questions is answered from three distinct viewpoints: behaviorism, cognitivism, and constructivism. Although learning theories typically are divided into two categories—behavioral and cognitive—a third category, constructive, is added here because of its recent emphasis in the instructional design literature e.
In many ways these viewpoints overlap; yet they are distinctive enough to be treated as separate approaches to understanding and describing learning. These three particular positions were chosen because of their importance, both historically and currently, to the field of instructional design. It is hoped that the answers to the first five questions will provide the reader with a basic understanding of how these viewpoints differ.
The answers to the last two questions will translate these differences into practical suggestions and recommendations for the application of these principles in the design of instruction. For each of the three theoretical positions, the questions are addressed and an example is given to illustrate the application of that perspective. It is expected that this approach will enable the reader to compare and contrast the different viewpoints on each of the seven issues.
As is common in any attempt to compare and contrast similar products, processes, or ideas, differences are emphasized in order to make distinctions clear.
This is not to suggest that there are no similarities among these viewpoints or that there are no overlapping features. In fact, different learning theories will often prescribe the same instructional methods for the same situations only with different terminology and possibly with different intentions.
This article outlines the major differences between the three positions in an attempt to facilitate comparison. It is our hope that the reader will gain greater insight into what each viewpoint offers in terms of the design and presentation of materials, as well as the types of learning activities that might be prescribed.
Current learning theories have roots that extend far into the past. Two opposing positions on the origins of knowledge-empiricism and rationalism have existed for centuries and are still evident, to varying degrees, in the learning theories of today.
Empiricism is the view that experience is the primary source of knowledge Schunk, That is, organisms are born with basically no knowledge and anything learned is gained through interactions and associations with the environment.
Beginning with Aristotle B. For example, the complex idea of a tree, as illustrated by Hulse, Egeth, and Deese , can be built from the less complex ideas of branches and leaves, which in turn are built from the ideas of wood and fiber, which are built from basic sensations such as greenness, woody odor, and so forth. From this perspective, critical instructional design issues focus on how to manipulate the environment in order to improve and ensure the occurrence of proper associations.
Rationalism is the view that knowledge derives from reason without the aid of the senses Schunk, This fundamental belief in the distinction between mind and matter originated with Plato c. The empiricist, or associationist, mindset provided the framework for many learning theories during the first half of this century, and it was against this background that behaviorism became the leading psychological viewpoint Schunk, Because behaviorism was dominant when instructional theory was initiated around , the instructional design ID technology that arose alongside it was naturally influenced by many of its basic assumptions and characteristics.
Since ID has its roots in behavioral theory, it seems appropriate that we turn our attention to behaviorism first. Behaviorism equates learning with changes in either the form or frequency of observable performance.
Learning is accomplished when a proper response is demonstrated following the presentation of a specific environmental stimulus. The key elements are the stimulus, the response, and the association between the two.
Of primary concern is how the association between the stimulus and response is made, strengthened, and maintained. Behaviorism focuses on the importance of the consequences of those performances and contends that responses that are followed by reinforcement are more likely to recur in the future.
The learner is characterized as being reactive to conditions in the environment as opposed to taking an active role in discovering the environment. Although both learner and environmental factors are considered important by behaviorists, environmental conditions receive the greatest emphasis. Behaviorists assess the learners to determine at what point to begin instruction as well as to determine which reinforcers are most effective for a particular student. The most critical factor, however, is the arrangement of stimuli and consequences within the environment.
Memory, as commonly defined by the layman, is not typically addressed by behaviorists. Transfer refers to the application of learned knowledge in new ways or situations, as well as to how prior learning affects new learning. In behavioral learning theories, transfer is a result of generalization. Situations involving identical or similar features allow behaviors to transfer across common elements. For example, the student who has learned to recognize and classify elm trees demonstrates transfer when s he classifies maple trees using the same process.
The similarities between the elm and maple trees allow the learner to apply the previous elm tree classification learning experience to the maple tree classification task. Behaviorists attempt to prescribe strategies that are most useful for building and strengthening stimulus-response associations Winn, , including the use of instructional cues, practice, and reinforcement.
These prescriptions have generally been proven reliable and effective in facilitating learning that involves discriminations recalling facts , generalizations defining and illustrating concepts , associations applying explanations , and chaining automatically performing a specified procedure.
However, it is generally agreed that behavioral principles cannot adequately explain the acquisition of higher level skills or those that require a greater depth of processing e. Many of the basic assumptions and characteristics of behaviorism are embedded in current instructional design practices. More recent examples include principles utilized within computer-assisted instruction CAI and mastery learning.
Specific assumptions or principles that have direct relevance to instructional design include the following possible current ID applications are listed in italics and brackets following the listed principle :. The goal of instruction for the behaviorist is to elicit the desired response from the learner who is presented with a target stimulus.
To accomplish this, the learner must know how to execute the proper response, as well as the conditions under which that response should be made. Therefore, instruction is structured around the presentation of the target stimulus and the provision of opportunities for the learner to practice making the proper response.
To facilitate the linking of stimulus-response pairs, instruction frequently uses cues to initially prompt the delivery of the response and reinforcement to strengthen correct responding in the presence of the target stimulus. However, with the repeated presentation of cues e. Although the initial responses may not be in the final proper form, repeated practice and reinforcement shape the response until it is correctly executed.
FinaIIy, learning is demonstrated when, upon the command to format a meeting agenda, the manager reliably organizes the agenda according to company standards and does so without the use of previous examples or models. Psychologists and educators began to de-emphasize a concern with overt, observable behavior and stressed instead more complex cognitive processes such as thinking, problem solving, language, concept formation and information processing Snelbecker, Whether viewed as an open revolution or simply a gradual evolutionary process, there seems to be the general acknowledgment that cognitive theory has moved to the forefront of current learning theories Bednar et al.
Learning is equated with discrete changes between states of knowledge rather than with changes in the probability of response.
Learning is concerned not so much with what learners do but with what they know and how they come to acquire it Jonassen, b. Knowledge acquisition is described as a mental activity that entails internal coding and structuring by the learner. The learner is viewed as a very active participant in the learning process. Cognitivism, like behaviorism, emphasizes the role that environmental conditions play in facilitating learning. Instructional explanations, demonstrations, illustrative examples and matched non-examples are all considered to be instrumental in guiding student learning.
Similarly, emphasis is placed on the role of practice with corrective feedback. Up to this point, little difference can be detected between these two theories. The cognitive approach focuses on the mental activities of the learner that lead up to a response and acknowledges the processes of mental planning, goal-setting, and organizational strategies Shuell, Additional key elements include the way that learners attend to, code, transform, rehearse, store and retrieve information.
As indicated above, memory is given a prominent role in the learning process. Learning results when information is stored in memory in an organized, meaningful manner. Designers use techniques such as advance organizers, analogies, hierarchical relationships, and matrices to help learners relate new information to prior knowledge.
Interaction between learner and environment in meaningful, real-life contexts is an essential factor that influences learning. What is a behaviorist approach in teaching? Behaviorists assess the degree of learning using methods that measure observable behavior such as exam performance. What does Cognitivism mean? Cognitivism is the study in psychology that focuses on mental processes, including how people perceive, think, remember, learn, solve problems, and direct their attention to one stimulus rather than another.
Psychologists working from a cognitivist perspective, then, seek to understand cognition. How does learning occur in Cognitivism? The way that learning occurs under the cognitivist umbrella is based largely on information processing theory. Learning is structured and transpires through cognitive encoding, rehearsal, storage, and retrieval of schemata.
Learning occurs internally, but also through social interactions with others. Who created Cognitivism? Ulric Neisser publishes "Cognitive Psychology", which marks the official beginning of the cognitive approach. What is behaviorism cognitivism and constructivism? Behaviorism: Learning is a response to external stimuli.
Cognitive psychology, on the other hand, says actions are based on the mental processes of reasoning, logical thinking, memory, motivational thoughts, positive and negative thoughts, etc. It is a very important aspect of psychology as it differentiates humans from animals. This branch of psychology is based on intellectual and logical reasoning which only humans are capable of. Let us take an example of a student trying to learn to understand the difference in approach of these two schools of thought.
According to behaviorism, the student learns mainly due to the rewards that he gets on learning properly and the punishment he gets if learning is not up to the mark. According to cognitive psychology, students learn due to their motivational thoughts and inner mental thought process, which provokes them to study to gain more knowledge. Both the branches have made tremendous contributions to the field of applied psychology. Behaviorism is useful in detoxification and rehabilitation centers for alcohol and drug addiction.
In cases of de-sensitization to stimuli that provoke panic attacks, it has been found to be very helpful.
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